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WikiPedia Information About CanadaInformation from the WikiPedia.Com Website for Canada/_TheTownGuide/Index_Layout_Leaders_wiki_Process.xsl {{For other uses of "Canada" and "Canadian" Canada (disambiguation) Canadian (disambiguation)}} {{pp-semi-protected small=yes}} {{Infobox Country native_name = Canada common_name = Canada image_flag = Flag of Canada.svg alt_flag = Vertical triband (red, white, red) with a red maple leaf in the centre of the white image_coat = Coat of arms of Canada.svg alt_coat = A shield divided into four rectangles over a triangle. The first rectangle contains three lions passant guardant in gold on a red background; the second, a red lion rampant on a gold background; the third, a gold harp on a blue background; the fourth, three gold fleurs-de-lis on a blue background. The triangle contains three red maple leaves on one stem over a white background. A gold helmet with a veil of red and white maple leaves sits on top of the shield, upon which stands a crowned lion holding a red maple leaf, with a larger crown over its head. On the right is a lion rampant flying the Union Flag. On the left is a unicorn wearing a gold chain from a crown collar, flying a blue flag with three fleurs-de-lis. Both animals hold a red ribbon that goes around the shield, which says "desiderantes meliorem patriam". Below the animals and shield is a blue scroll inscribed with the motto "A mari usque ad mare", which sits on a wreath of flowers. symbol_type = Arms national_motto = {{lang la ''A Mari Usque Ad Mare''}}{{spaces 2}}(Latin) "From Sea to Sea" national_anthem = "O Canada" royal_anthem = "God Save the Queen" image_map = Canada (orthographic projection).svg alt_map = Projection of North America with Canada in green map_width = 180px capital = Ottawa latd = 45 latm=24 latNS=N longd=75 longm=40 longEW=W largest_city = Toronto official_languages = Canadian English English and Canadian French French regional_languages = Inuktitut, Inuinnaqtun, Cree language Cree, {{nowrap Dene Suline language Dëne Suliné}}, Gwich’in language Gwich’in, Inuvialuktun, Slavey language Slavey and {{nowrap Dogrib language Tlicho Yatiì}}{{cite web url=http://www.assembly.go v.nt.ca/_live/documents/documentManagerUplo ad/08-09-02%20Official%20Languages%20Act.pdf format=PDF title=Official Languages Act work=Revised Statutes of NWT, 1988 publisher=Department of Justice, Northwest Territories accessdate=2009-11-01}} demonym = Demographics of Canada Canadian government_type = Federalism Federal parliamentary system parliamentary democracy and constitutional monarchy{{cite book last=D'Aquino first=Thomas coauthors= Doern, G. Bruce; Blair, Cassandra title=Parliamentary democracy in Canada: issues for reform publisher=ITP Nelson date=1983 page=2 isbn=0458962902}} leader_title1 = Monarchy of Canada Monarch leader_name1 = Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom HM Queen Elizabeth II leader_title2 = Governor General of Canada Governor General leader_name2 = Michaëlle Jean leader_title3 = Prime Minister of Canada Prime Minister leader_name3 = Stephen Harper legislature = Parliament of Canada Parliament upper_house = Senate of Canada Senate lower_house = Canadian House of Commons House of Commons sovereignty_type = Canadian Confederation Establishment established_event1 = British North America Acts established_date1 = July 1, 1867 established_event2 = Statute of Westminster 1931 Statute of Westminster established_date2 = December 11, 1931 established_event3 = Canada Act 1982 Canada Act established_date3 = April 17, 1982 area_km2 = 9,984,670 area_sq_mi = 3,854,085 area_rank = 2nd area_magnitude = 1 E12 percent_water = 8ቔ (891,163 km2/344,080 mi2) population_estimate = {{formatnum:{{CanPopCommas}} }} {{cite web url = http://www.statcan& #46gc.ca/edu/clock-horloge/edu06f_0001-eng.htm title = Canada's population clock publisher = Statistics Canada accessdate={{ CURRENTYEAR}}-{{CURRENTMONTH}}-{{CURRENTDAY}} }} population_estimate_year = {{CURRENTYEAR}} population_estimate_rank = 36th population_census = 31,241,030{{cite web url=http://www12.statcan.ca/english/ce nsus06/data/highlights/ethnic/pages/Page.cfm?L ang=E&Geo=PR&Code=01&Table=2&Data=Count&StartRec=1&Sort=3&Display=All/ title=Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada, provinces and territories – 20% sample data date=2008-01-04 publisher=Statistics Canada accessdate=2009-10-19}} population_census_year = 2006 population_density_km2 = 3ሡ population_density_sq_mi = 8Ǐ population_density_rank = 228th GDP_PPP_year = 2008 GDP_PPP = $1드 trillion{{cite web url=http ://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/02 /weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&s sd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=156&s=NGDPD%2CNG DPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=65&pr.y=3 title=Canada publisher=International Monetary Fund accessdate=2009-10-01}} GDP_PPP_rank = 14th GDP_PPP_per_capita = $39,098 GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 13th GDP_nominal = $1떣 trillion GDP_nominal_rank = 9th GDP_nominal_year = 2008 GDP_nominal_per_capita = $45,085 GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 18th HDI_year = 2009 HDI = {{increase}} 0띶 HDI_rank = 4th HDI_category = very high Gini = 32Ǎ (2005) currency = Canadian dollar Dollar ($) currency_code = CAD time_zone = utc_offset = -3Ǒ to -8 time_zone_DST = utc_offset_DST = -2Ǒ to -7 date_format = dd-mm-yyyy, mm-dd-yyyy, ''and'' yyyy-mm-dd (Common Era CE) drives_on = Right cctld = .ca calling_code = Telephone numbers in Canada +1 footnotes = '''Portal:Canada Canada portal''' }} '''Canada''' {{IPAc-en ' k æ n ? d ?}} is a country occupying most of northern North America, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the east to the Pacific Ocean in the west and northward into the Arctic Ocean. It is the world's second largest List of countries and outlying territories by total area country by total area. Canada's Canada–United States border common border with the United States to the south and northwest is the longest in the world. The land occupied by Canada was inhabited for millennia by various groups of Aboriginal peoples in Canada Aboriginal people. Beginning in the late 15th century, British colonization of the Americas British and French colonization of the Americas French expeditions explored, and later settled along, the Atlantic coast. France ceded nearly all of New France its colonies in North America in 1763 after the Seven Years' War. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Canadian Confederation Confederation, Canada was formed as a federalism federal dominion of four provinces.{{cite web title = Territorial evolution work = Atlas of Canada publisher = Natural Resources Canada url =http://atlas.n rcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/reference/anniversary_maps/terr_evol format = html/PDF accessdate = 2007-10-09}}{{cite web title = Canada: History work = Country Profiles publisher = Commonwealth Secretariat url =http://www.thecommonwealth.org/YearbookInternal/145152/history/ format = html/PDF accessdate = 2007-10-09}} This began an Territorial evolution of Canada accretion of provinces and territories and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This widening autonomy was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster 1931 Statute of Westminster of 1931 and culminated in the Canada Act 1982 Canada Act of 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom British parliament. A federation consisting of Provinces and territories of Canada ten provinces and three territories, Canada is governed as a parliamentary system parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. It is a Official bilingualism in Canada bilingual nation with both Canadian English English and Canadian French French as official languages at the federal level. One of the world's developed country highly developed countries, Canada has a diversified economy that is reliant upon its abundant natural resources and upon trade—particularly with the United States, with which Canada has had a Canada–United States relations long and complex relationship. It is a member of the G8, G-20 major economies G-20, NATO, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development OECD, World Trade Organisation WTO, Commonwealth of Nations Commonwealth, Organisation internationale de la Francophonie Francophonie, Organisation of American States OAS, Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation APEC, and United Nations UN. EtymologyName of Canada}} The name ''Canada'' comes from a St. Lawrence Iroquoians St. Lawrence Iroquoian word, ''kanata'', meaning "village" or "settlement". In 1535, indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier towards the village of Stadacona. Cartier later used the word ''Canada'' to refer not only to that particular village, but also the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this region as ''Canada''.{{cite journal last=Maura first=Juan Francisco date=2009 title=Nuevas aportaciones al estudio de la toponimia ibérica en la América Septentrional en el siglo XVI journal=Bulletin of Spanish Studies publisher=Routledge volume=86 issue=5 pages=577–603}} From the early 17th century onwards, that part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River and the northern shores of the Great Lakes was named ''Canada''. The area was later split into two British colonies, Upper Canada and Lower Canada. They were re-unified as the Province of Canada in 1841.{{cite book title = Naming Canada: Stories of Canadian Place Names edition = 2nd first = Alan last = Rayburn publisher = University of Toronto Press location = Toronto year = 2001 isbn = 0-8020-8293-9 pages = 1–22 }} Upon Canadian Confederation Confederation in 1867, the name ''Canada'' was adopted as the legal name for the new country, and ''Dominion'' (a term from Psalm 72:8){{cite book last=Clarke first=Michael title=Canada: Portraits of the Faith publisher=Reel to Real year=1998 isbn=0968183506 page=60}} was conferred as the country's title. Combined, the term ''Dominion of Canada'' was in common usage until the 1950s. As Canada asserted its political autonomy from the United Kingdom, the federal government increasingly used simply ''Canada'' on state documents and treaties, a change that was reflected in the renaming of the national holiday from Dominion Day to Canada Day in 1982.{{cite book title=Canada and the British Empire editor=Phillip Buckner publisher=Oxford University Press date=2008 pages=37–40, 56–59, 114, 124–125 isbn=019927164X}} HistoryHistory of Canada Timeline of Canadian history}} Aboriginal peoplesAboriginal peoples in Canada}} Aboriginal peoples in Canada Aboriginal Canadian traditions maintain that the indigenous people have resided on their lands since the Creation myth#North America beginning of time. Archaeological studies support a human presence in the northern Yukon from 26,500 years ago, and in southern Ontario from 9,500 years ago.{{cite journal last=Cinq-Mars first=J year=2001 title=On the significance of modified mammoth bones from eastern Beringia journal=The World of Elephants – International Congress, Rome url=http://web.archive.org/web/*/http://ww w.palanth.com/forum/upload_download/articles/cinqmars_elefanti_01.pdf format=PDF accessdate=2010-02-25}}{{cite web last=Wright first=JV publisher=Canadian Museum of Civilization Corporation url=h ttp://www.civilization.ca/cmc/exhibitions/archeo/hnpc/npvol04e.shtml title=A History of the Native People of Canada: Early and Middle Archaic Complexes date=2001-09-27 accessdate=2009-10-19}} The aboriginal population is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million in the late 1400s. Repeated outbreaks of European infectious diseases such as influenza, measles and smallpox, to which they had no natural immunity (medical) immunity, combined with other effects of European contact, resulted in a possible eighty-five to ninety-five percent aboriginal population decrease post-contact.{{cite book last=Carter first=Sarah title=Aboriginal people and colonizers of Western Canada to 1900 publisher=University of Toronto Press location=Toronto date=1999 page=37 isbn=0802079954}}{{cite book last=Wilson first=Donna M coauthors= Northcott, Herbert C title=Dying and Death in Canada publisher=University of Toronto Press location=Toronto date=2008 isbn=9781551118734 pages=25–27}} During the late 1630s, smallpox killed over half of the Huron, who controlled most of the early fur trade in what became Canada. Reduced to fewer than 10,000 people, the Huron were attacked by the Iroquois, their traditional enemies.{{cite book last=Robertson first=Ronald G title=Rotting face : smallpox and the American Indian publisher=Caxton Press location=Caldwell, Idaho date=2001 isbn=0870044192 pages=107–108}} European colonizationTerritorial evolution of Canada}} European colonization of the Americas Europeans first arrived when the Vikings settled briefly at L'Anse aux Meadows around AD 1000; after the failure of that colony, there was no known further attempt at Canadian exploration until 1497, when John Cabot explored Canada's Atlantic coast for England. In 1534 Jacques Cartier explored Canada for France.{{cite book title = A Short History of Canada first = Desmond last= Morton authorlink = Desmond Morton (historian) publisher = McClelland & Stewart location = Toronto year = 2001 edition = 6th isbn = 0-7710-6509-4 pages = 9–17 }} French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent European settlements at Port Royal, Nova Scotia Port Royal in 1605 and Quebec City in 1608.Morton, Desmond (2001) (pp. 17–19) Among French colonization of the Americas French colonists of New France, ''Canadiens'' extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while Coureur des bois French fur traders and René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi River#Watershed Mississippi watershed to Louisiana (New France) Louisiana. The French and Iroquois Wars broke out over control of the fur trade.Morton, Desmond (2001) (p. 33) File:Benjamin West 005.jpg thumb right 225px alt=A group of men in military uniforms crowded around a dying red-coated man. Three men crouch beside him, and a native man looks on. The background is large groups of men with guns Benjamin West's ''The Death of General Wolfe'' (1771) dramatizes James Wolfe Wolfe's death during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham at Quebec City Quebec in 1759. The battle was part of the French and Indian War Seven Years' War. The English established fishing outposts in Newfoundland (island) Newfoundland around 1610 and established the Thirteen Colonies to the south.{{cite journal last=Smith first=Philip date=April 1987 title=Transhuman Europeans Overseas: The Newfoundland Case journal=Current Anthropology publisher=University of Chicago Press volume=28 issue=2 pages=241–250}} A series of four French and Indian Wars Intercolonial Wars erupted between 1689 and 1763.Morton, Desmond (2001) (pp. 89–104) Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the Treaty of Utrecht (1713); the Treaty of Paris (1763) ceded Canada and most of New France to British Empire Britain after the French and Indian War Seven Years' War.{{cite journal last=Sarkonak first=Ralph date=1983 title=A Brief Chronology of French Canada, 1534–1982 journal=Yale French Studies publisher=Yale University Press issue=65 pages=275–282}} The Royal Proclamation of 1763 Royal Proclamation (1763) carved the Province of Quebec (1763–1791) Province of Quebec out of New France and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. In 1769, St. John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony.{{cite book last=Bumsted first=JM title=Land, settlement, and politics on eighteenth-century Prince Edward Island publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press date=1987 page=30 isbn=0773505660}} To avert conflict in Quebec, the British passed the Quebec Act of 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio River Ohio Valley. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law in Quebec. This angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies and helped to fuel the American Revolution. The Treaty of Paris (1783) recognized American independence and ceded territories south of the Great Lakes to the United States. Approximately 50,000 United Empire Loyalists fled the United States to Canada.{{cite book first= Christopher last=Moore year=1994 title=The Loyalist: Revolution Exile Settlement publisher=McClelland & Stewart location= Toronto isbn=0-7710-6093-9}} New Brunswick was split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes. To accommodate English-speaking Loyalists in Province of Quebec (1763–1791) Quebec, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province into French-speaking Lower Canada (later the Quebec#Canadian_Confederation province of Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario#Canada West Ontario), granting each its own elected Legislative Assembly.{{cite book last=McNairn first=Jeffrey L title=The capacity to judge publisher=University of Toronto Press location=Toronto date=2000 page=24 isbn=0802043607}} Canada (Upper and Lower) was the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the British Empire. Following the war, large-scale immigration to Canada from Britain and Ireland began in 1815.{{cite book last=Haines first=Michael coauthors= Steckel, Richard Hall title=A population history of North America publisher=Cambridge University Press date=2000 isbn=9780521496667 page=380}} From 1825 to 1846, 626,628 European immigrants landed at Canadian ports.{{cite web url=http://faculty.marianopolis 6edu/c.belanger/QuebecHistory/encyclopedia/ImmigrationHistoryofCanada.htm title=Immigration History of Canada date=2004 publisher=Marianopolis College accessdate=2008-01-26}} Between one-quarter and one-third of all Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891 died of infectious diseases. The logging timber industry surpassed the fur trade in economic importance in the early nineteenth century. File:Fathers of Confederation LAC c001855.jpg left 240px thumb alt=A group of formal older men in suits sit around a table, upon which there are several pieces of paper Robert Harris (painter) Robert Harris's Canadian Confederation#Fathers of Confederation ''Fathers of Confederation''This is a photograph taken in 1885 of the now-destroyed 1884 painting. is an amalgamation of scenes from the Charlottetown Conference Charlottetown and Quebec Conference, 1864 Quebec conferences. The desire for responsible government resulted in the aborted Rebellions of 1837. Report on the Affairs of British North America The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into British culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged The Canadas into a united Province of Canada. Responsible government was established for all British North American provinces by 1849.{{cite journal last=Romney first=Paul date=Spring 1989 title=From Constitutionalism to Legalism: Trial by Jury, Responsible Government, and the Rule of Law in the Canadian Political Culture journal=Law and History Review publisher=University of Illinois Press volume=7 issue=1 page=128}} The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel north 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Colony of Vancouver Island Vancouver Island (1849) and in Colony of British Columbia British Columbia (1858).{{cite book last=Evenden first=Leonard J coauthors=Turbeville, Daniel E title=Geographical snapshots of North America editor=Donald G. Janelle publisher=Guilford Press date=1992 page=52 chapter=The Pacific Coast Borderland and Frontier isbn=0898620309}} Canada launched a series of western exploratory expeditions to claim Rupert's Land and the Arctic region. Confederation and expansionCanadian Confederation}} File:Canada provinces evolution 2.gif thumb right 260px alt=When Canada was formed in 1867 its provinces were a relatively narrow strip in the southeast, with vast territories in the interior. It grew by adding British Columbia in 1871, P.E.I. in 1873, the British Arctic Islands in 1880, and Newfoundland in 1949, Its provinces grew both in size and number at the expense of its territories. An animated map, exhibiting Territorial evolution of Canada the growth and change of Canada's provinces and territories since Confederation Following several constitutional conferences, the Constitution Act, 1867 brought about Confederation, creating "one Dominion under the name of Name of Canada#Adoption of Dominion Canada" on July 1, 1867, with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick.{{cite book title = History of Canada Since 1867 first = Robert last = Bothwell publisher = Michigan State University Press year = 1996 location = East Lansing, MI isbn = 0-87013-399-3 pages=207–310}} Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where Métis people (Canada) the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870.{{cite book last=Bumsted first=JM title=The Red River Rebellion publisher=Watson & Dwyer location=Winnipeg date=1996 isbn=0920486231}} British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had United Colonies of Vancouver Island and British Columbia united in 1866) and the colony of Prince Edward Island joined the Confederation in 1871 and 1873, respectively.{{cite web url=http://www. canadiangeographic.ca/Atlas/themes.aspx?id= building&sub=building_basics_confederation&lang=En title=Building a nation publisher=The Canadian Atlas accessdate=2009-09-18}} Prime Minister of Canada Prime Minister John A. Macdonald John A. Macdonald's Conservative Party of Canada (historical) Conservative government established a national policy of tariffs to protect nascent Canadian manufacturing industries.Bothwell, Robert (1996) (p. 31). To open the West, the government sponsored construction of three trans-continental railways (most notably the Canadian Pacific Railway), opened the prairies to settlement with the Dominion Lands Act, and established the Royal Canadian Mounted Police North-West Mounted Police to assert its authority over this territory.{{cite web url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/sir-john-a-macdonald/023013-5000-e.html title=Sir John A. Macdonald date=2008 publisher=Library and Archives Canada accessdate=2009-09-18}}{{cite web url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca /publications/archivist-magazine/015002-2230-e.html title=The Canadian West: An Archival Odyssey through the Records of the Department of the Interior last=Cook first=Terry date=2000 work=The Archivist publisher=Library and Archives Canada accessdate=2009-09-18}} In 1898, after the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, the Canadian government created the Yukon territory. Under Liberal Party of Canada Liberal Prime Minister of Canada Prime Minister Wilfrid Laurier, continental European immigrants settled the prairies, and Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Early 20th centuryCanada in the World Wars and Interwar Years}} Britain's declaration of war in 1914 automatically entered Canada into World War I.{{cite book last=Morton first=Desmond title=A military history of Canada publisher=McClelland & Stewart location=Toronto date=1999 edition=4th pages=130–158, 173, 203–233 isbn=0771065140}} Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps. The Corps played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major battles of the war. Out of approximately 625,000 who served, about 60,000 were killed and another 173,000 were wounded.{{cite book last=Haglund first=David G coauthors= MacFarlane, S Neil title=Security, strategy and the global economics of defence production publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press date=1999 page=12 isbn=0889118752}} The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when conservative Prime Minister Robert Borden brought in compulsory military service over the objection of French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain and in 1931, the Statute of Westminster 1931 Statute of Westminster affirmed Canada's independence.{{cite journal last=Dellinger first=Walter date=Autumn 1982 title=The Amending Process in Canada and the United States: A Comparative Perspective journal=Law & Contemporary Problems publisher=Duke Law School volume=45 issue=4 page=291}} File:Canadian tank and soldiers Vimy 1917.jpg thumb 220px left alt=A group of soldiers with guns march on uneven ground past a wrecked tank and the body of another soldier Canadian soldiers won the Battle of Vimy Ridge in 1917. The Great Depression brought economic hardship to all of Canada. In response, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Alberta and Saskatchewan enacted many measures of a welfare state as pioneered by Tommy Douglas in the 1940s and 1950s.{{cite book last=Young first=Walter title=Social Democracy in the South Pacific editor=Peter Davis publisher=Ross location=Auckland, New Zealand date=1983 volume=2 pages=48–58 chapter=Canada: The Social Democracy of Provincial Government in a Federal System isbn=0908636350}} Canada Military history of Canada during the Second World War declared war on Germany independently during World War II under Liberal Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, three days after Britain. The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. Canadian troops played important roles in the Battle of the Atlantic (1939–1945) Battle of the Atlantic, the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid in France, the Allied invasion of Italy, the D-Day landings, the Operation Overlord Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum and protection for the monarchy of the Netherlands while that country was occupied, and is credited by the Netherlands for leadership and major contribution to the liberation of the Netherlands from Nazi Germany.{{cite book last=Goddard first=Lance title=Canada and the Liberation of the Netherlands publisher=Dundurn Press Ltd date=2005 pages=225–232 isbn=1550025473}} The Canadian economy boomed as industry manufactured military materiel for Canada, Britain, China, and the Soviet Union. Despite another Conscription Crisis of 1944 Conscription Crisis in Quebec, Canada finished the war with one of the largest armed forces in the world.{{cite book last = Stacey first= CP authorlink =C.P. Stacey title=History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War publisher = Queen's Printer year= 1948}} In 1945, during the war, Canada became one of the founding members of the United Nations. Modern timesMain articles: History of Canada (1945–1960), History of Canada (1960–1981) (1960–1981), History of Canada (1982–1992) (1982–1992), and History of Canada (1992–present) (1992–present)}} The Dominion of Newfoundland (now Newfoundland and Labrador), at the time equivalent in status to Canada and Australia as a Dominion, joined Canada in 1949. Canada's growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the current Flag of Canada Maple Leaf Flag in 1965,{{cite book last=Mackey first=Eva title=The house of difference: cultural politics and national identity in Canada publisher=University of Toronto Press location=Toronto date=2002 isbn=0802084818 page=57}} the implementation of official bilingualism (English language English and French language French) in 1969,{{cite journal last=Esman first=Milton J date=Summer 1982 title=The Politics of Official Bilingualism in Canada journal=Political Science Quarterly publisher=The Academy of Political Science volume=97 issue=2 pages=233–253}} and Multiculturalism#Origins in Canada official multiculturalism in 1971.{{cite journal last=Esses first=Victoria M coauthors= Gardner, RC date=July 1996 title=Multiculturalism in Canada: Context and current status journal=Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science publisher=American Psychological Association volume=28 issue=3 pages=145–152}} There was also the founding of Social democracy socially democratic programmes, such as Medicare (Canada) universal health care, the Canada Pension Plan, and Student loans in Canada Canada Student Loans, though provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.{{cite web u rl=http://www.escwa.un.org/information/publications/edit/upload/sd-01-09.pdf title=Social Policies in Canada: A Model for Development last=Sarrouh first=Elissar date=2002-01-22 work=Social Policy Series, No. 1 publisher=United Nations pages=14–16, 22–37 accessdate=2010-01-17}} Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms Charter of Rights and Freedoms.{{cite book editor=James Bickerton, Alain Gagnon title=Canadian Politics publisher=Broadview Press edition=4th location=Orchard Park, NY isbn=1-55111-595-6 year=2004}} At the same time, Quebec was undergoing profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution, giving birth to a Quebec nationalism nationalist movement in the province and the more radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ), whose actions ignited the October Crisis in 1970.{{cite book last=Clift first=Dominique title=Quebec nationalism in crisis publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press date=1982 edition=reissued pages=28–36, 96–99, 106–107 isbn=0773503838}} A decade later, an unsuccessful referendum on Quebec sovereignty movement sovereignty-association was held in 1980, after which Meech Lake Accord attempts at constitutional amendment failed in 1990. A Quebec referendum, 1995 second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of just 50ǒ% to 49ǐ%.{{cite book first=John Alexander last=Dickinson coauthors=Young, Brian year=2003 title=A Short History of Quebec publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press edition=3rd location=Montreal isbn=0-7735-2450-9}} In 1997, the Supreme Court of Canada Supreme Court ruled that Reference re Secession of Quebec unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation. Government and politicsGovernment of Canada Politics of Canada}} {{seealso Monarchy of Canada Elections in Canada List of Canadian political parties}} File:Canadian parliament MAM.JPG thumb right 210px alt=A building in neo-Gothic style, with a central clocktower rising from a block stretching east and west Parliament Hill, Ottawa Canada has a parliamentary government with strong democratic traditions. Parliament of Canada Parliament is composed of The Crown, an elected House of Commons of Canada House of Commons, and an appointed Senate of Canada Senate. Each Member of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality (voting) plurality in an Canadian electoral district electoral district or riding. General elections must be called by the Prime Minister of Canada prime minister within five years of the previous election, or may be triggered by the government losing a confidence vote in the House.{{cite book last=Dawson first=R MacGregor coauthors= Dawson, WF title=Democratic Government in Canada editor=Norman Ward publisher=University of Toronto Press location=Toronto date=1989 pages=16–17, 59–60, 66 isbn=0802067034}} Members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, are chosen by the prime minister and formally appointed by the Governor General of Canada Governor General and serve until age 75.{{cite journal last=Hicks first=Bruce M coauthors= Blais, André date=2008 title=Restructuring the Canadian Senate through Elections journal=IIRP Choices publisher=Institute for Research on Public Policy volume=14 issue=14 page=11}} Four parties had representatives elected to the federal parliament in the 2008 elections: the Conservative Party of Canada (governing party), the Liberal Party of Canada (the Official Opposition (Canada) Official Opposition), the New Democratic Party (NDP), and the Bloc Québécois. The list of List of political parties in Canada#Historical parties that have won seats in Parliament historical parties with elected representation is substantial. Canadian federalism Canada's federal structure divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the ten Provinces and territories of Canada provinces. Legislative Assemblies of Canadian provinces and territories Provincial legislatures are Unicameralism unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons.{{cite book last=Stevenson first=Garth title=Unfulfilled union: Canadian federalism and national unity publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press date=2004 edition=4th page=30 isbn=0773527443}} Canada's three Provinces and territories of Canada territories also have legislatures, but with fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces and with some structural differences (for example, the legislative assemblies of the Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories Northwest Territories and Legislative Assembly of Nunavut Nunavut have no parties and operate on consensus).{{cite web url=http://www.pco-bcp.gc.ca/aia/index&# 46asp?lang=eng&page=provterr&sub=difference&doc=difference-eng.htm title=Difference between Canadian Provinces and Territories date=2009 publisher=Intergovernment Affairs Canada accessdate=2009-09-19}}{{cite web url=http://www.assembly.gov.nt.ca/_l ive/pages/wpPages/factscomparisonofprovincialandterritorial.aspx title=A Comparison of Provincial & Territorial Governments date=2008 publisher=Legislative Assembly of the Northwest Territories accessdate=2010-03-10}}{{cite web url=http://www.assembly.nu.ca/english/about/FAQ.htm#18 title=Frequently Asked Questions date=2008 publisher=Legislative Assembly of Nunavut accessdate=2009-09-19}} Canada is also a constitutional monarchy, with The Crown acting as a symbolic or ceremonial executive branch executive. The Crown consists of Queen Elizabeth II (legal head of state) and her appointed viceroys, the governor general (acting head of state), and provincial Lieutenant Governor (Canada) lieutenant-governors, who perform most of the monarch's ceremonial roles.{{cite book title=Commonwealth public administration reform 2004 publisher=Commonwealth Secretariat date=2004 pages=54–55 isbn=0117032492}} The political executive consists of the prime minister (head of government) and the Cabinet of Canada Cabinet and carries out the day-to-day decisions of government. The Cabinet is made up of ministers usually selected from the House of Commons and headed by the prime minister, who is normally the leader of the party that holds the confidence of the House of Commons.{{cite book last=Johnson first=David title=Thinking government: public sector management in Canada publisher=University of Toronto Press location=Toronto date=2006 edition=2nd pages=134–135, 149 isbn=1551117797}} The Office of the Prime Minister (Canada) Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting, besides other Cabinet members, senators, federal court judges, heads of Crown corporations and government agencies, and the governor general. The Crown formally approves parliamentary legislation and the prime minister's appointments.{{cite book first = Eugene A last = Forsey authorlink = Eugene Forsey title = How Canadians Govern Themselves edition = 6th publisher = Canada location = Ottawa year = 2005 isbn = 0-662-39689-8 accessdate=2009-10-20 url = http://www.parl 6gc.ca/information/library/idb/forsey/PDFs/How_Canadians_Govern_Themselves-6ed.pdf format=PDF page=16}} The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the Leader of the Opposition (Canada) Leader of the Opposition, and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check. Michaëlle Jean has served as Governor General since September 27, 2005;{{cite journal last=Jean first=Michaëlle date=November 2005 title=Canada : terre de liberté et d’aventures journal=Policy Options publisher=Institute for Research on Public Policy volume=26 issue=9 pages=5–6 language=French}} Stephen Harper, leader of the Conservative Party, has been prime minister since February 6, 2006;{{cite web url=http://www.pm.gc.ca/eng/pm.asp?featureId=7 title=Prime Minister of Canada publisher=Office of the Prime Minister date=2009 accessdate=2009-10-23}} and Michael Ignatieff, leader of the Liberal Party, has been Leader of the Opposition since December 10, 2008.{{cite web url=http://www.liberal.ca/en/michael-ignatieff/biography title=Michael Ignatieff work=Liberal Party of Canada publisher=Federal Liberal Agency of Canada date=2009 accessdate=2009-10-23}} LawLaw of Canada}} {{See also Court system of Canada}} File:Supreme Court of Canada.jpg thumb 210px right alt=A grey Art Deco-style building The Supreme Court of Canada in Ottawa, west of Parliament Hill The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country, and consists of written text and unwritten conventions.{{cite book last=Bakan first=Joel coauthors= Elliot, Robin M title=Canadian Constitutional Law publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications date=2003 pages=3–8, 683–687, 699 isbn=1552390853}} The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Acts British North America Act prior to 1982) affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent "similar in principle to that of the United Kingdom" and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments; the Statute of Westminster 1931 Statute of Westminster, 1931 granted full autonomy; and the Constitution Act, 1982 added the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, which guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any level of government—though a ''Section Thirty-three of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms notwithstanding clause'' allows the federal parliament and provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years—and added a constitutional amending formula. Canada's judiciary plays an important role in interpreting laws and has the power to strike down laws that violate the Constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court and final arbiter and has been led by the Right Honourable Madam Chief Justice Beverley McLachlin, P.C. (the first female Chief Justice) since 2000.{{cite book last=McCormick first=Peter title=Supreme at last: the evolution of the Supreme Court of Canada publisher=James Lorimer & Company Ltd date=2000 pages=2, 86, 154 isbn=1550286927}} Its nine members are appointed by the Governor General of Canada governor general on the advice of the Prime Minister and Minister of Justice. All judges at the superior and appellate levels are appointed after consultation with nongovernmental legal bodies. The federal cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts at the provincial and territorial levels. Judicial posts at the lower provincial and territorial levels are filled by their respective governments.{{cite web url=http://www.scc-csc.gc.ca/court-cour/sys/index-eng.asp title=About the Court date=2009 publisher=Supreme Court of Canada accessdate=2009-09-20}} Common law prevails everywhere except in Quebec, where civil law (legal system) civil law predominates.{{cite book last=Sworden first=Philip James title=An introduction to Canadian law publisher=Emond Montgomery Publications date=2006 pages=22, 150 isbn=1552391450}} Criminal law in Canada Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is a provincial responsibility, but in rural areas of all provinces except Ontario and Quebec, policing is contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.{{cite web url=http://www.rcmp-grc.gc.ca/abou t-ausujet/safe-secur-secur-eng.htm#neighbourhood title=Keeping Canada and Our Communities Safe and Secure publisher=RCMP accessdate=2009-09-20}} Foreign relations and militaryForeign relations of Canada Canadian Forces}} {{seealso Military history of Canada}} File:CF-18, Hornet.jpg thumb right A Canadian CF-18 Hornet in Bagotville, Quebec. CF-18s have supported North American Aerospace Defense Command NORAD air sovereignty patrols and participated in combat during the Gulf War of 1991 and Kosovo and Bosnia in the late 1990s. Canada – United States relations Canada and the United States share the world's longest undefended border, co-operate on military campaigns and exercises, and are each other's largest trading partner.{{cite journal last=Haglung |
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